Plato’s and Cicero’s life and Political Ideas Essay Example for Free

Plato’s and Cicero’s life and Political Ideas Essay Between 429-347 BCE, were the period of Plato and his ocean of philosophical dispositions and carried the most deep-seated political, social and intellectual thoughts. His questions raised the consciousness of intellectuals, students and general people making them think every aspect of their life from new and fresh perspective. As said by Alfred North Whitehead, â€Å"All Western philosophy consists of footnotes to Plato. † (Garvey 7) Plato was a student of Socrates and teacher of Aristotle, and naturally in his works there is a reflection of Socrates thoughts and ideologies. But while remembering, Plato we should not forget Cicero, 106-43 B. C. who was himself part of many of the political developments of his time. He was not only a philosopher but also an orator, lawyer and politician. He laid more importance to politics over philosophy. His philosophical works came about only in the period when he was forced to refrain himself from politics. Though he was neither considered as exceptional thinker nor we can see any originality in his works yet his thoughts on various aspects of philosophy exerted tremendous influence on many thinkers after many years to come. His popularity rose in 19th century. There is no comparison between Plato and Cicero as they were both of different ages and had their own distinct attributes, yet if we give deep thoughts into their philosophical works what we get is what we call slight deviations in their thoughts on Politics. Plato was born in Athens during 428-7 B. C. E but there is no certainty about this date because according to Diogenes Laertius, Plato was born in the same year when Pericles died. He was also considered to be six years younger than Socrates was and his death came when he passed the youthful years of his life-at the age of 84. If according to Apollodorus’ version, the death date of Plato is correct then his birth date should lie between 430 or 431 but Diogenes put his birth in 429. Diogenes further said that if Plato was the twenty years old at the time of Socrates murder in 399 then his year of birth should be 427. These years between 429-347 B. C. E is considered to be very appropriate, whereas, Cicero was born on 3rd January 106 BC in Arpinum, as Arpino today. It is a hill town situated 100 kilometres towards south of Rome. This small Italian got Roman citizenhsip in 188 B.  C. and began to speak Latin rather than their language Volscian before they were enfranchised by Romans. The assimilation of nearby Italian communities into Rome laid Cicero’s future as a Roman statesman, orator and writer. Though he had a great mastery over Latin rhetoric and composition but Cicero would never from him heart considered himself as a â€Å"Roman† and he was aware of this fact through out his life. During this period of Roman history, it was considered as cultured to able to speak both the Greek and Latin languages. Like many of his contemporaries, Cicero also got education in Greek rhetoricians, and their most influential teachers of their time was also Greek. His knowledge of Greek language enabled him to translate many of its theological concepts into Latin brining maximum number of common people into the world of Greek philosophical thoughts. He was so inclined towards the study of Greek culture and language that he would be called by the other boys as â€Å"Little Greek boy†, yet it is his obsession with the Greek language that made him tied to the traditional Roman elite. The family of Cicero belonged to the local class of nobles known as domi nobles, but without any tie with the Roman senatorial class. Cicero was only connected to Gaius Marius, the most popular person born in Arpinium. In 80 B. C. , he led the most popular faction during civil war against optimates of Lucius Cornelius Sulla. Cicero’s father was a knight who would compensate his personal life by reading books. His mother was Helvia who was a very good housewife. (Clayton Online edition) Plato’s was also fortunate to be born in a noble family of Athens. He was the son of Aristone and his mother’s name was Perictone. He got his nickname from the wrestler’s broad shouldered physique. He was expected to follow the family’s tradition of politicians but when he witnessed that Athens entered into conflict with Sparta during Peloponnesian war, he aliented himself from politics and at the age of twenty, joined the School of Socrates. Socrates main ambition was to seek the truth and further explore on the issues like virtue and pity. He also critcised religious and political institutions but allegations began to be levid against him from all corners as he was charged for corrupting the mind of youths. Plato captured the nerves of the society at large and pened down his earnest views followed by Apology and Crito. When Socrates died, Plato opened his academy in a grove which was considered to be sacred to the demigod Academus, near Athens. The importance of Academy grew when Aristotle became its student. Astronomy, Mathematics, and Philosophy were the subjects taught in the Academy. Few years of his life, Plato spent in travelling gaining more knowledge in the other parts of Mediterranean whereas rest part of his life was spent in Athens until he died in 347 B. C.  Ralph Waldo Emerson, a great American essayist, philosopher, a poet and a leader of Transcendentalist movement of the nineteenth century evoked, Plato is philosophy, and philosophy, Plato, at once the glory and the shame of mankind, since neither Saxon nor Roman have availed to add any idea to his categories. †Ã¢â‚¬â€(Emerson, Spiller, Ferguson Slater Carr 23) Plato understood politics from the angle of justice and democracy. His aim was to give the rulers the main principle of what constituted real politics. For Plato, politics was an application of what metaphysics and ethics considered as true. His ideal world was something which was true, good and therefore virtuous. He gave to the world the best mouth piece of the study of human behavior and his relation with society. His â€Å"Republic† was his ideological stand point whereby he posed number of questions and pondered their answers in the light of various assumptions and dynamics of society. His main question comes from the light of what is good and bad in their world-Why should we be good and why in this cruel world, wicked are more happy and successful? To find out the answer to this question, Plato had to invite the whole community-the Polis. In other words , if you can find out the right direction to form polis which is healthy then the importance to individual happiness is ruled out. For Plato, justice is a base which could only be frutifully gained by bringing about balance in wisdom, courage and temperance. For Plato, even an ideal state can be self desructive. Plato posited the view that even ideal state where all have equal rights could also be destructive and it could be happen in turn by the very basic concept on which democracy stands. Though Republic, the Statesman, the Laws are three main political dialogues of Plato, and they developed their ideologies on the basis of what today is termed as conceptual analysis-in other words clarification of the basic principles on which politics stands and its importance. For Plato, this conceptual analysis was a preliminary stage for further critical evaluation of thought processes. According to Plato, making right decisions on the administration and making right choice between peace and war are the two most crucial initial steps of good politics. Such decisions could not be left into the hands of public only but by good orator. Cicero’s works included fifty speeches, around thousand letters to friends and associates, among them the several of his works included rhetorical theories and twelve out of them are on philosophical topics. These display great intellectual thoughts that deepen Cicero’s conviction that both the philosophy and rhetoric are independent to each other and are very important for human life and society. His works on philosophy stand witness to the rhetorical techniques and style of Roman oratory. The political philosophy of Plato was largely based on speculations about ideal state. Though he did conceptualize his points by imploring upon the city-states of Greece and events in current political scenario, yet his discussions evolved largely around what he and other intellectuals thought to be ideal states. The essence of his ideological state lied in the needs of the man on the individual level and on the whole and these needs of the man joined them together to work for the common goal. The members that make the society could be divided into different classes according to their particular work criteria. As according to Plato, in man, there are two different souls in the same way in the society also, there are three different classes: philosophers, warriors, and producers; one of which belongs to the rational souls and the rest two belong to the irrational souls and each class has its own particular role to fulfill. For e. g. philosophers run the state, warriors defend it and producers cultivate their skills to produce the materialistic goods needed by the state. On the other hand, much of the Cicero’s political thoughts followed Aristotle concept of ideal state. For Cicero, there were three main forms of government; monarchy, aristocracy, and the constitutional state, but he also believed that there is every scope of perversion in each form of government, which emerges from those who do not have regard for the public good. Not one form of government is perfectly good. Instead Cicero prescribed what is known as composite form of government with the principles of monarchy, aristocracy and democracy. This form of government today is known as Common Wealth form of Government and Cicero termed as the Res Publica, literally known as â€Å"The People’s thing. His composite republic is based on the monarchical principle, also known as consuls; the aristocratic is likened to the Senate of Rome, which performs both the legislative and executive functions. The democratic principles are tribunes referred to as committees (comitia) in ancient Rome. Rather than revolutionary or politically visionary, Cicero was being considered more as a â€Å"political conservative† who was eager to preserve the Roman Republic against the designs of Julius Caesar, Mark Anthony, and Octavian whose aim was to make Rome into their own personal empire. But Cicero did not succeed in preventing Roman Republic from collapse and was murdered by the followers of Mark Anthony. (Marcus Cicero, Section 12). Cicero’s law was based on these two: â€Å"That true law was reason, That good is always good, that bad is always bad and in traditional Roman values. † (Simmons Online) He criticized all other form of constitutions for breaching the rights and interests of people and conveyed that political system should provide legal rights to every one equally but give electoral, legislative and judicial rights in accordance to their merit and wealth. Cicero’s first book On the Orator laid importance of Oratory in the politics of Rome. Oratory had been part of the Roman politics, and Cicero mainly superimposed its value. His discussions merely revolved around education basically history and poetry with composition of logic, philosophical theory and rhetorical techniques. As said by Stephen Whites’s, â€Å"Orator, clearly reflects Cicero’s own proficiencies, unites thorough knowledge of history and law with complete command of in a Romanized version of Platos philosopher-rulers†. (White online edition). Both Plato and Cicero wanted education to be based on philosophy to produce best statesman. While Plato’s more emphasis was on training on mathematical ground and transcendental metaphysics, Cicero wanted many practical programs of instructions designed to cultivate articulacy and civic debate. (White Online edition). His On the Republic is his much thought provoking dialects on leadership and politics. It was almost lost but its first third was recovered in 1820. On the Republic is a challenge of Plato’s Greek political theory based on utopian thoughts. He defined republic as â€Å"a peopl’e affair, â€Å"(res populi) and people as a community who have joined in to one consensus on their mutual interest. His other part constitutes his explanation on types of constitutions in classical Greek style and developed the data on the development of Roman institutions; whereas some of the sections which are either lost or preserved in very poor state have in short explanation of Hellenistic debates on the nature and rewards of justice and the discussions on education system of Rome. Yet another of his book On Laws is a sequel to a legal system. Contradicting Plato’s laws, he contended that Rome already had embodied itself much the ideals of law. On Laws truly appeared to be very important in the sense that it contains full account of natural law. Based entirely on Stoic ideas, Cicero contended that the whole concept of law is already a part of nature with an appropriate order, which could be codified in legislation for final tribunal in a court of law. After these writings, civil war erupted and he did not go further into this, but last of his books summed up his thinking on political grounds by bringing out the importance of morality in public life. In his On Duties which was his epistle to his son, he gave the routes to bestow on the proper code of conduct for Roman nobility emphasizing justice, benefaction and public service. His entire focus was on the men of high status and their way of dealing with the problems relating to personal ambitions and social obligations. Cicero too always stood on his profound trust on the noblest trait of human beings, which is their humanity and inculcate reasoning power to improve the lives of human beings. His thoughts on humanism are best skewed in his â€Å"On the Ends of Good and Evil†. The dialogue herein reflects on the question of what and where is the end of all human actions and the way you attain the happiness. Cicero agreed with Aristotle and saw that human beings are political or social animals. â€Å"But nature has given to mankind a compulsion to do good, and a desire to defend the well being of the community . (Cicero Rudd R I. 1). † But the most influential model book was The Republic by Plato. Cicero’s homage to the Republic was found in its expression in the section which was lost but also found its place in his concluding marks of the cosmos and the afterlife (The Dream of Scipio), which reflects the myth of err by the end of the Plato’s end book. Plato has been directly quoted and or reflected several times. Cicero’s Scipio states that, â€Å"Rather than invent a city for themselves as Plato did, he prefers to examine a real historical stance (The Roman Constitution) which comes closet to the ideal†. (Cicero, Rudd, Powell xvi) But it was also mistake to espouse that, because Cicero had departed from Plato in certain way, his Republic is in very deep sense anti-platonic. It is further said that â€Å"Cicerio’s Scipio was enough of a Platonist to regard philosophy and astronomy as wise man’s true occupation, and to declare that one should take political offices only our of sense of duty or necessity, as Plato’s Guardian do. (I-26-29)( Cicero, Rudd, Powell 17) There are many similarities between the Plato’s Republic and Cicero, de ra republic. Each formulated on the account of relationship between citizen and state. Both of them discussed on justice, both of them bestowed theory of constitution. Both of them also had mentioned discussion on education and a vision of an after life. Sharpely too suggested that â€Å"Cicero Republic in the sense, Plato’s turned inside out. † (Cicero Zetzel 14) In the Republic by Plato, Socrates and his friends are trying to implore and analyze on what should be an ideal city but do not want to analyze the state in which he was living. Plato and Cicero were only mouthpieces in an arena of political thoughts in their respective periods whereas in Ciceros De re publica, all the comments whether directly or indirectly emphasized on the organization of the state they ought to be living, which was Roman Republic in the final stages.

The Metamorphosis & Existentialism Essay Example for Free

The Metamorphosis Existentialism Essay Franz Kafka’s The Metamorphosis is a masterfully written novella about Gregor Samsa, a man who devotes his life to his family and work, for nothing in return. Only when he is transformed into a helpless beetle does he begin to develop a self-identity and understand the relationships around him. The underlying theme of The Metamorphosis is an existential one that says that any given choice will govern the later course of a person’s life and that a person has ultimate will over making choices. In this case, Gregor’s choices of his part in society cause him to have a lack of identity that has made him to be numb to everything around him. One morning Gregor awakens to find himself transformed into a beetle. Although the reader is never enlightened on how Gregor morphed into a beetle, or shown that Gregor gives much thought to having a body of an insect, Kafka gives the strong impression that Gregor is very devoted to his work and is the sole support of the family, none of which work themselves. Gregor devotes himself to a life of work and self-sacrifice, â€Å"[d]ay in, day out- on the road† (Kafka 4), following ever order, and expectation to a scurrilous degree. His life could be linked to that of a drone in an ant colony, and thus gives an explanation to Kafka’s logic when he is transformed into an insect, and thinks nothing of it. In fact upon finding himself transformed he immediately prioritizes his work above everything else; The next train left at seven o’clock; to make it, he would have to hurry like a madman, and the line of samples wasn’t packed yet, and he himself didn’t feel especially fresh and ready to march around. (5) Through his transformation into a beetle, Gregor abandons his mislead obligation to society and instead devotes the rest of his life to himself. Because of this Gregor’s family quickly grows to resent him as a burden to the household. Society and his family had no further use for him, so Gregor starves to death is his bedroom. On the opposite end of the spectrum, Gregor’s father began the story as a lazy and non-productive human being. He relied solely and completely on his son. After Gregor’s transformation, his father followed suit. He became a proud and productive individual of the lower bureaucracy. He found the balance between work and leisure that Gregor could not. According to Kafka and existentialism, people have both an individual side and a side with the commitment of society. It is our choices that must be in moderation of the two, to maintain balance. If a person chooses himself over society, he will lose the support of society; however, if a person chooses society, he will lose his individuality. Gregor initially chooses society over himself, which in turn transformed him into the working drone he was. After his physical transformation, he is forced reassert his focus to himself, and society abandons him. Through Gregor’s plight, his family became cohesive and productive in society, each contributing through work and leisure. Gregor learned to live for himself too late to become a whole person. Gregor begins to look for entertainment and fun in the form of a bug, a form that knows nothing but work, by crawling up to the ceiling and hanging from there, or from wall to wall over the various objects, this gave him a feeling of â€Å"almost happy absent-mindedness† (32). Haven given up any hope of returning to his human form or being a civilized working part of society ever again, this was one of the only joys Gregor had left in his life. By ignoring the purpose of being an insect, Gregor defeats the purpose of living in his new form of life, and in effect, dies. The Metamorphosis advances the existential view that choice is the opportune of the individual. It is the responsibility of the individual to maintain a balance between work and leisure. The Metamorphosis lends the idea that, if one chooses to devote their life entirely to work, they are no more than droning insects, yet if they devote their lives to leisure, they are no better off. A balance needs to be found. As rational beings, the burden of moderation between value to society and value to self must be assumed by the individual. One must be productive in order to be valuable to society, and one must have leisure in order to be valuable to them.

Preformulation Studies: Analysis of Honey

Preformulation Studies: Analysis of Honey Experimental work: Preformulation studies: Analysis of honey: Materials: Materials selected for the analysis of honey were procured from College of Pharmacy, IPS Academy, and Indore. Samples of Honey (Dabur honey) of different batches were selected and analysed where (n=3). Parameters studied: Sensory evaluation Foreign matter Ash value pH Refractive index Moisture content Acidity Standard procedure was followed for the analysis of different samples of honey. Determination of ÃŽ »max: For determination of ÃŽ »max, stock solution of drug (concentration 1000ÃŽ ¼g/mL) in water was prepared by dissolving 10 mg curcumin in 10 mL of distilled water .The working solutions in the concentration range of 2-10 ÃŽ ¼g/mL were prepared. Resulting solutions were scanned in the range of 400 to 800 nm with help of UV-visible spectrophotometer, and the maximum wavelength was determined. The ÃŽ »max of curcumin was found to be 420 nm. Preparation of Calibration Curve by UV-visible Spectroscopy: A. Preparation of Calibration Curve in distilled water: The stock solution of curcumin was prepared by dissolving 10 mg of curcumin in 10 mL methanol to produce concentration of 1000ÃŽ ¼g/mL. Preparation of standard solutions: Standard solutions were prepared in the concentration range of 2-10ÃŽ ¼g/mL by suitable dilutions of the stock solution in methanol and absorbance were taken at 420nm in visible spectrum (Shimadzu 1800). B. Calibration curve in PBS 6.8 Preparation of stock solution: The stock solution of curcumin was prepared by dissolving 10 mg of curcumin in 10 mL Phosphate Buffer Saline to produce concentration of 1000ÃŽ ¼g/mL. Preparation of standard solutions: Standard solutions were prepared in the concentration range of 2-10ÃŽ ¼g/mL by suitable dilutions of the stock solution in PBS 6.8 and absorbance were taken at 420 nm in visible spectrum (Shimadzu 1800). Formulation and optimization of gel: Materials: Carbopol 934p NF, triethanolamine, honey, glycerin, methyl and propyl Parabens and all other chemicals were procured from college of pharmacy IPS Academy, Indore are of analytical grade and used without further purification. Curcumin were procured as a gift sample from Ajmera Pharmaceuticals Pvt. Ltd., Indore, India. Preparation of gel: The topical gel was prepared by soaking the Carbopol 934 in water for 24 h. Drug was first dispersed in small quantity of glycerin with gentle heating and then preservatives were dissolved in glycerin and then added to Carbopol solution with stirring the remaining ingredients were added to it and triethanolamine was added to the neutralize the Carbopol gel base. Preparation of topical gel base: Composition for the medicated formulation: Evaluation of gel formulation: pH: The pH of prepared gel formulation was determined by using digital ph meter. 1 g of gel was dissolved in 100 mL freshly prepared distilled water and stored it for 2 hours. The measurement of pH of each formulation was done in triplicate and average values were calculated. Viscosity: Brookfield digital viscometer was used to measure the viscosity of prepared gel. The T shaped spindle was selected (T3) was rotated different ppm range. The reading, near to 100% torque was noted down. A sample was measured at 30Â ±1Â °C. Spreadability: Spreadability was determined by wooden block and glass slide apparatus. Weight of about 2 g was selected and added to the pan and the time was noted for upper slide to separate completely from the fixed slide. Spreadability was calculated by the given formula: S= M.L/T Where; S= Spreadability M= weight tied to the movable upper slide L= length of a glass slide T= time taken to separate the slide completely from each other. Homogeneity: All the formulations were tested for this parameter by visual inspection after the gel have been set in the container. They are observed for any aggregation or their appearance. Drug content: A specific quantity of gel generally 1 g of gel was taken and dissolved completely in 100 ml of phosphate buffer 6.8. The volumetric flask containing gel was shaked for 2 h on a mechanical shaker in order to get uniform solution. The solution was filtered by 0.45Â µm membrane filter and estimated spectrophotometrically at 420nm using phosphate buffer 6.8 as a blank solution. Invitro release profile: In- vitro release studies was performed by using a diffusion cell with a receptor compartment capacity of about 20 ml. the egg membrane was mounted between the donor and receptor compartment of the assembly. The formulated preparation was weight up to 1g was placed over the membrane and the receptor compartment of the diffusion cell was filled with phosphate buffer 6.8. the whole assembly was fixed on magnetic stirrer, and the solution in the receptor compartment was constantly and continuously stirred using magnetic beads at 50 rpm and the temperature was maintained at 37Â ±0.50 Â °C the samples of 1 ml was withdrawn at time interval of 15, 30, .60, 90, 120, 150, 180, 210, 240, 270 and 300 min., analysed for drug content spectrophotometrically at 420nm against blank. The receptor compartment was replaced with an equal volume of phosphate buffer at each time of the sample withdrawn. The cumulative graph was plotted against time. Determination of antimicrobial activity: Preparation of inoculums: For evaluation of antibacterial activity, 24 hours fresh culture of bacteria was suspended in sterile water to obtain a uniform suspension of microorganism. Determination of zone of inhibition: Antibacterial activity is checked by agar well diffusion method. in this method a previously liquefied medium was inoculated with 0.2ml of bacterial suspension having a uniform turbidity at temperature of 40Â °C. 20 ml of culture medium was poured into the sterile petri dish having a internal diameter of 8.5 cm. care was taken for the uniform thickness of the layer of medium in different plates. After complete solidification of liquefied inoculated medium, the wells were made aseptically with cork borer having 6mm diameter. In each of the plates gel solution was placed carefully. Plates was kept for pre-diffusion for 30 min. after that plates were incubated at 37 Â °C for 24 hr. after incubation period was over, the zone of inhibition was measured with the help of Hi-media. Stability studies: It is the most important component of any formulation the acceptance and the rejection of the particular preparation depends on this study. The international conference on harmonization (ICH) guidelines titled stability testing of new drug substance and product (QIA) defines the stability test requirement for drug requirement for drug registration application in the European, USA and Japan. Long term stability testing: 25 Â ± 2 Â °C /60 % RH Â ±5 % for 12 months. Accelerated testing: 40 Â ± 2 Â °C / 75 % RH Â ± 5%for 6 months. Stability studies were carried out at 40 Â ±2 Â °C /75 Â ± 5 % RH for the selected formulation for one month.

Cataract Operation :: Free Essays

Cataract Operation Title ----- The title refers to the removal of a dull film from the eyes. This is a poem about sight and awareness. Structure Another poem of twenty lines, being made up of ten couplets. Again the poet plays with rhyme as in the pun "hens" and "lens". Language The poem is rife with clichÃÆ'Â ©, metaphor and puns. The poem starts with a very distinctive simile: "The sun comes like a head through last night's turtleneck." This not only gives the reader a comical image of the sun coming up but links this time of day with waking up and hurrying to dress up in yesterday's clothes. By changing everyday ordinary things into extraordinary images, the poet creates a vivid picture and a sense of movement. He does this through his choice of words, his use of colloquial expressions and his use of metaphor. Notice how he describes the pigeon. The expression "turns tail" is particularly effective because it suggests that the pigeon is turning and "taking flight", all in one quick movement. Comparing the tail to a magician fanning out a pack of cards also works well because it expresses the magic of a brief moment when the pigeon opens out its tail feathers. The theatrical metaphor is continued with "a pantomime of damp, forgotten washing" which now plays out the entertainment, where these ordinary things are transformed. So, as the wind stirs the washing, the poet imagines a bull fight enacted with the crimson towel, a can-can danced by the fluttering ra-ra skirt, the mischievous behaviour of the shirt, which flaps animatedly in the wind pegged only by its sleeve, waving of a handkerchief like an informal goodbye, and imagines a parade of hens are a company of soldiers strutting round the courtyard. Parts of the pictures are real and some are imagined. The poem can be compared to a magic eye picture. If it is studied for long enough, the picture changes and hidden images emerge.

A Comparison of the Quest for Enlightenment in Candide and Dream of the

Quest for Enlightenment in Candide and Dream of the Red Chamber      Ã‚   Seventeenth-century Europe saw the end of the Renaissance and ushered in the Neoclassic era. During this period, which is also called the Enlightenment and "The Age of Reason," society advocated rationalism and urged the restraint of emotion. Writers modeled their works after the Greco-Roman satires and picaresque novels. At around the same time in China, the author of Dream of the Red Chamber explores a different kind of enlightenment, whose roots are in religion. Buddha is called "The Enlightened One," and one of the major concerns of Buddhism is "Why do we suffer and feel pain?"    Candide by Voltaire and Dream of the Red Chamber by Cao Xuegin introduce characters and motifs that have become illustrations of the quest for enlightenment. Candide, in the spirit of the European Enlightenment, is a satire on philosophy and religion. Voltaire uses this work to candidly criticize irrational optimism and thought control. Interestingly, the word "candid" even makes up a part of Candide's name, and Voltaire uses hyperbole to contribute to his concept of extremes. After being kicked out of his home, Candide wanders and drags "himself toward the neighboring town . . . dying of hunger and fatigue." Later, he "embraced the Baron and Pangloss a hundred times."      Pangloss, Candide's tutor, teaches a strange subject called "metaphysico-theologo-cosmolo-nigology," and one of the towns Candide visits is named "Valdberghoff-trarbk-dikdorff."   It is these details that accentuate Voltaire's criticism of irrational behavior. He further stresses his point with the characters' rationalization of hardship as being "everything is for the best." regardless of how ... ...eam of the Red Chamber is also related to the happiness material things can bring. Chen Shih-yin gives up his material possessions and begins a journey to enlightenment. While both author seem to renounce or denounce the world, they also appear to espouse the "seize the day" philosophy, so that one will not have regrets.    Works Cited Voltaire. Candide or Optimism. Trans. Donald M. Frame. The HarperCollins World Reader: The Modern World. Ed. Mary Ann Caws and Christopher Prendergast. New York: HarperCollins, 1994. 1933-1997. Other versions have also been consulted. Cao Xuegin. Dream of the Read Chamber. An excerpt and adaptation. Trans. Chi-Chen Wang. The HarperCollins World Reader: The Modern World. Ed. Mary Ann Caws and Christopher Prendergast. New York: HarperCollins, 1994. 1469-1478. Other versions, including the original, have also been consulted.

Plato Contrasted with Confucius Essay -- Compare Contrast Plato Confuc

Plato Contrasted with Confucius Since the early beginnings of society, in which people began living in gathered communities, there can be seen a constant progression, upon a steady time line, of the increased order of the organization of society. However, this is not the kind of progress that was sought by two widely known philosophers and teachers, Plato and Confucius. The kind of social reform and alteration displayed in the teachings and writings of both of these men, examine a movement from societies viewed as chaotic and barbaric toward societies consisting of gentleman, practicing prescribed values, morals, and actions. Confucius and Plato both emphasized a moral conduct that went above and beyond the socially accepted norms of their times. Despite the concentration on these factors in Chinese and Grecian cultures, the progress attempted by both of these philosophers was not achieved by their own standards within their own societies.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are several common themes running through the primary work of compiled sayings attributed to Confucius: emphasis on gentlemanly conduct, pursuit of humbleness among fellow man, and a search for a proper ruler who is in accordance with â€Å"the Way.† Running throughout the entire book of â€Å"The Analects†, Confucius makes reference to many characteristics that a gentleman should possess. Even beginning in the first chapter of Book One, Confucius is attributed with saying, â€Å"Is it not gentlemanly not to take offence when others fail to appreciate your abilities?† Other characteristics Confucius attributed to gentlemanly conduct include studying the rites and â€Å"The Odes†, humbleness, lack of desire for places of position, unbending in moral conduct, and many other factors. By laying out a basis upon which a gentleman should act, Confucius establishes a standard to measure the quality of all men. Setting a standard implies that there are men above and below this set, desired point, and the word standard also indicates a measure of quantitative or qualitative value. By creating such a standard, Confucius is immediately able to begin causing social reform and progress. However, this progress, though achieved through concentration on social values, never reaches the capacity to which Confucius desires it to reach. Several sayings within The Analects indicate that Confucius is unable to see an accumulation of all desire... ...ty is tentative. It proves to reason that a society guided by high morals will have a progress. However, to assume that all corruption will be removed simply by placing leadership in office that adheres to the high standards fails to recognize the flaw in man that Plato and Confucius both obviously see: man is in need of progress towards civil order. From the beginning, man is already viewed as degraded and morally corrupt. The society will progress because progression of society has been the natural order since the beginning of civilization. It is the quality and moral standing of this progress that is in question. Using Plato’s method of progression, it can be seen that society is not progressing, but rather being led blindly down a road. Progression implies the acquisition of knowledge upon a continuous path. Keeping men under order through ignorance, and elevating those with morally upright actions only serves to further isolate and expand the gap between the men posse ssing knowledge of civil order and those merely following it out of service to a defined path. A false sense of progress is created, while the majority of society remains ignorant of why to be humane and civil.

Night World : The Chosen Chapter 10

Or not to meet them so much as graze past them, before concentrating on his chin. She didn't dare stare directly into them for long. â€Å"Maybe she is from another planet,† Quinn was saying to the girl. â€Å"Maybe she's not human. Maybe I'm not, either.† That's right, Rashel thought. Make fun of them by telling them a truth they won't believe. But, she noticed, Quinn looked more as if he didn't care what they found out than as if he were mocking them. â€Å"Maybe she's from another world. Did you ever think of that?† Rashel was confused again. Quinn seemed to be trying to get himself killed. He appeared to be verging on telling these girls about the Night World, and under the laws of the Night World, that was punishable by death. You're really slipping, Rashel thought. First the slave trade, now this. I thought you were supposed to be such a stickler for the law. â€Å"There are darker dimensions,† Quinn was confiding to the group, â€Å"than you have ever imagined. But, you see, it's all part of life's grand design, so it's all right. Did you know†-he put his arm around a girl's shoulders, gesturing outward as if inviting her to look at some horizon-â€Å"that there's a certain kind of wasp that lays its eggs in the body of a caterpillar? A live caterpillar. And it stays alive, you see, while the eggs hatch and the little waspettes eat it from the inside out. Now, who do you think invented that?† Rashel wondered if vampires could get drunk. â€Å"That would probably be the most horrible way to die,† Daphne chimed in, her musical voice ghoulish. â€Å"Being eaten by insects. Or maybe being burned.† â€Å"It would probably depend on how fast you burned,† Quinn said meditatively. â€Å"A flash of fire-high enough temperature-you bum the nerves out in the first few seconds. Slow baking would be different.† â€Å"I'm writing a poem about fire,† Rashel said. She was surprised to find that she was annoyed because Quinn didn't really seem to have noticed her. On second thought, she should be annoyed; her plan depended on him not only noticing but choosing her. She was going to have to capture his attention. â€Å"Do you have it with you?† Daphne was asking helpfully. â€Å"No, but I can tell you the beginning,† Rashel said. She braced herself to look at Quinn as she recited: â€Å"There's warmth in ice; there's cooling peace in fire, And midnight light to show us all the way. The dancing flame becomes a funeral pyre; The Dark was more enticing than the Day.† Quinn blinked. Then he smiled, and he looked Rashel over, dearly taking notice of the velvet jumpsuit and ending with her face. He looked everywhere†¦ except into her eyes. â€Å"That's right; you've got it,† he said with that same brittle exhilaration. â€Å"And there's plenty of dark out there for everyone.† Rashel's worry that he might look too deep if he met her gaze was groundless. Quinn didn't seem to be really seeing anybody here. â€Å"There is plenty of darkness,† Rashel said. She moved toward him, feeling strangely brave. Her instincts sensed a weakness in him, a flaw. â€Å"It's everywhere. It's inescapable. So the only thing we can do is embrace it.† She was standing right in front of him now, looking at his mouth. â€Å"If we hold it dose, it won't hurt so much.† â€Å"Well. Exactly.† Quinn showed his teeth, but it wasn't the manic smile. It was a grimace. He didn't look happy anymore; suddenly, for just an instant, he looked tired and sick. He was almost leaning away from Rashel. â€Å"I came here so I could do that,† Rashel said in a sultry voice. She was scaring herself a little. In the name of the charade, she was doing everything she could to seduce him-but it was surprisingly easy and surprisingly enjoyable. There was a sort of tingling all over her body, as if the jumpsuit had picked up a charge. â€Å"I came to look for the darkness,† she said. Softly. Quinn laughed abruptly. The feverish good humor came flooding back. â€Å"And you found it,† he said. He went on laughing and laughing, and he reached out to touch Rashel's cheek. Don't let him touch you! The thought flashed through Rashel's mind and communicated to her muscles in an instant. Without knowing how she knew, she was certain that if he touched her, it would all be over. It was skin-to-skin contact that had nearly fried every circuit in her brain before. She danced back from his fingertips and smiled teasingly, while her heart tried to pound its way out of her chest. â€Å"This place is so crowded,† she said throatily. â€Å"Huh? Oh. Then why don't we schedule something more private? I could pick you up tomorrow night. Say seven o'clock in the parking lot.† Bingo. â€Å"But Quinn.† It was Daphne, looking aggrieved. â€Å"You told me to meet you tomorrow.† She trembled her chin. Quinn stared at her, and for once, Rashel could read his face easily. He was thinking that anybody that stupid deserved it. â€Å"Well, you can both come,† he said expansively. â€Å"Why not? The more the merrier.† He walked away laughing and laughing. Rashel watched him go, resisting an impulse to shake her head. She'd done it; she'd passed the last test and been chosen. So why was her heart still pounding? She glanced out of the side of her eye at Daphne. â€Å"Well, I don't know about anybody else, but I've had enough excitement for tonight.† She went to get her coat, with the rest of Quinn's coterie glaring jealously after her. She had one enjoyable experience on the way out. Ivan, still slouching, tried to stop her at the door. â€Å"Shelly, hey. I thought we were going to get to know each other better.† Rashel didn't need him anymore; she had her invitation. â€Å"I'd rather get to know a head louse,† she said in her sweet chatty voice, and she stepped on his foot hard with her high heel. In the car, she waited a full twenty minutes, watching the front of the club, before Daphne joined her. â€Å"Sorry, but I didn't want anybody to think we were leaving together.† â€Å"You did a great job,† Rashel said, driving away. â€Å"You even managed to get both of us invited to meet Quinn together-that was dangerous, but it worked. The only thing that surprised me is that he invited us in front of everybody. Is that how he did it before?† â€Å"No. Not at all. Last time, he sort of whispered it to me when nobody was around. But, you know, nothing was normal tonight. I mean, he usually asks new girls questions-I guess to figure out if they have families who'll miss them. And he isn't usually that-that†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"Manic?† â€Å"Yeah. I wonder what's going on with him?† Rashel pressed her lips together and stared straight ahead through the windshield. â€Å"You sure you want to go through with this?† It was Sunday night and they were nearing the parking lot of the Crypt. â€Å"I've told you and told you,† Daphne said. â€Å"I'm ready. I can do it.† â€Å"Okay. But, listen, if there's any trouble, I want you to run. Run away from the club and don't look back for me. All right?† Daphne nodded. At Rashel's suggestion, she was wearing something more sensible tonight: black pants heavy enough to provide some warmth, a dark sweater, and shoes she could run in. Rashel was dressed the same way, except that she was wearing high boots. The knife was in one. â€Å"You go first,† Rashel said, parking a street away from the club. â€Å"I'll come in a minute.† She watched Daphne walk away, hoping she wasn't going to get this little blond bunny killed. She herself was the danger. Quinn was going to use mind control on them to get them to go to the warehouse quietly. And Rashel wasn't sure what would happen when he did it. Just don't let him touch you, she told herself. You can carry it off as long as he doesn't touch you. Five minutes later, she started toward the Crypt. Quinn was in the dark parking lot, standing by a silvery-gray Lexus. As Rashel reached the car, she saw the pale blob of Daphne's face through the window. â€Å"I almost thought you weren't coming.† There was now a sort of savagery mixed in with Quinn's lunatic good humor. As if he was angry she wasn't smart enough to save herself. â€Å"Oh, I wouldn't miss this for the world.† Rashel kept her eyes on the car. She wanted to get this over with. â€Å"Are we going somewhere?† There was that tiny hesitation that seemed to come every time she spoke to him, as if it were taking him a minute to focus. Or as if he were trying to figure something out, she thought nervously. Then he answered smoothly, â€Å"Oh, right, get in.† Rashel got in. She glanced once at Daphne in the back seat. Daphne said, â€Å"What's up?† in a chirpy voice laced with feminine rivalry. Good girl. Quinn was getting in the driver's side. Once the door was shut, he turned the engine on to run the heater. The windows immediately began to fog. Rashel sat in a state of continuing mind, ready for the unexpected at any moment. Only the unexpected didn't come. Nothing came. Quinn was just sitting there in the driver's seat. Watching her. With a sudden void in her stomach that threatened her zanshin, Rashel realized that it was too dark. Too familiar. They were sitting here together in silence, so close, visible to each other only in silhouette, just as they had in the cellar. She could almost feel Quinn's confusion as he tried to figure out what was bothering him. And Rashel was afraid to say anything, afraid that her chirpiest voice wouldn't be a good-enough disguise. The horrible feeling of connection was mounting, like some giant green wave looming over them both. In a moment it would break, and Quinn would say, â€Å"I know you,† and switch on the light to see the face without the veil. Rashel's fingers edged toward her knife. Then, through the electric buzzing in her ears, she heard Daphne say, â€Å"You know, I just love this car. I bet it goes really fast, too. This is all so exciting-I'm just so glad I got here this time. Not like last week.† She went on, blathering easily, while Rashel sank back lightheaded with relief. The connection was broken; Quinn was now looking at his instrument panel as if trying to escape the chatter. And now Daphne was talking about how exciting it was to ride in the dark. Smart, smart girl. Quinn had to interrupt her to say, â€Å"So, you two girls want to surrender to the darkness?† He said it as if he were asking if they wanted to order pizza. â€Å"Yes,† Rashel said. â€Å"Oh, yes,† Daphne said. â€Å"It's just like we always say. I think that would be just the most seriously cool-â€Å" Quinn made a gesture at her as if to say, â€Å"For God's sake, shut up.† Not a rough gesture. It was more like an exasperated choir director trying to get through to some soprano who wouldn't stop at the end of the measure. Stop here. And Daphne shut up.' Like that. As if he'd turned off a switch in her. Rashel twisted slightly to look at the backseat and saw that Daphne had slumped to one side, body limp, her breathing peaceful. Oh, God, Rashel thought. She was used to the kind of mind control other vampires had tried on her. The persuasive, whispery-voice-in-the-head type. And when Quinn hadn't tried to use that, or to call for help in the cellar, she'd assumed he was low on telepathy. Now she knew the truth. He packed a telepathic punch like a pile driver. No, like a karate blow: swift, precise, and deadly. He turned to look at her, a dark shape against a lighter darkness. Rashel tried to brace herself. â€Å"And the rest is silence,† Quinn said, and gestured at her. Rashel fell into a void. She woke up as she was being carried into the warehouse. She had enough presence of mind not to open her eyes or make any other sign that she was conscious. It was Quinn carrying her; she could tell even with her eyes shut. When he dumped her on a mattress, she deliberately fell so that her head was turned away from him and her hair was over her face. She had a moment's fear that he was going to discover the knife in her boot when he shackled her ankles. But he didn't even roll up her pant leg. He seemed to be doing everything as quickly as possible, without really paying attention. Rashel heard the shackle snap shut. She kept perfectly still. She lay and listened as he brought Daphne in and chained her. Then she heard voices close by and the sound of other footsteps. â€Å"Put that one down here-what happened to her purse?† That was Lily. â€Å"It's still in the car.† Ivan. â€Å"Okay, bring it in with the other one. I'll do her feet.† Thump of a body hitting a mattress. Footsteps going away. The metallic clink of chains. Then a sigh from Lily. Rashel could imagine her straightening up and looking around in satisfaction. â€Å"Well, that's it. Ivan's got number twenty-four in the car. I guess we're going to have one very happy client.† â€Å"Joy,† Quinn said flatly. Twenty-four? One client? â€Å"I'll leave a message that everything's going to be ready for the big day.† â€Å"Do that.† â€Å"You're awfully moody, you know. It's not just me who's noticed it.† A pause, and Rashel imagined Quinn giving one of his black looks. â€Å"I was just thinking it was ironic. I turned down a job as a slave trader once. That was before. Do you remember before, Lily? When we lived in Charlestown and your sister Dove was still alive. A captain from Marblehead asked if I wanted to ship out to Guinea for some human cargo. Black gold, I think he called it. As I remember, I hit him on the nose. And Fight-the-Good-fight-for-Faith Johnson reported me for brawling.† â€Å"Quinn, what's wrong with you?† â€Å"Just reminiscing about the old days in the sunlight. Of course, you wouldn't know about that, would you? You're lamia; you were born this way. Technically, I suppose, you were born dead.† â€Å"And technically, I suppose, you're going peculiar. My father always said it would happen.† â€Å"Yes, and I wonder what your father would think about all this? His daughter selling humans for money. And to such a client, and for such a reason-â€Å" At that moment, while Rashel was listening desperately, hanging on every word, heavy footsteps interrupted. Ivan had returned. Quinn broke off, and he and Lily remained silent as another body thumped on a bed. Rashel cursed mentally. What client? What reason? She'd supposed the girls were being sold as regular house slaves or food supplies. But clearly that wasn't the case. And then something happened that drove thoughts of the future right out of her mind. She heard footsteps next to her bed, and she was aware of someone leaning close. Not Quinn, the smell was wrong. Ivan. A rough hand grabbed her hair and pulled her head back. Another arm slid under her waist, lifting her up. Panic shot through Rashel, and she tried to push it away. She forced herself to stay limp, eyes shut, arms dangling passively. I ought to have been prepared for this. She'd realized from the beginning that playing her part might include allowing herself to get bitten. To feel vampire teeth on her throat, to allow them to spill her blood. But it bad never happened to her before, and it took every ounce of her will to keep from fighting. She was scared. Her arched throat felt exposed and vulnerable, and she could feel a pulse beating in it wildly. â€Å"What are you doing?† Quinn's voice was sharp as the crack of glacier ice. Rashel felt Ivan go still. â€Å"I've got something to settle with this girl. She's a smartass.† â€Å"Take your hands off her. Before I knock you through the wall.† â€Å"Quinn-† Lily said. Quinn's voice was painfully distinct. â€Å"Drop her. Now.† Ivan dropped Rashel. â€Å"He's right,† Lily said coolly. â€Å"They're not for you, Ivan, and they have to be in perfect shape.† Ivan muttered something sullen and Rashel heard footsteps moving away. She lay and listened to her heart slowly calming. â€Å"I'm going to get some sleep,† Quinn said, sounding flat and dull. â€Å"See you Tuesday,† lily said. Tuesday, Rashel thought. Great. It's going to be a very long two days. They were the most boring two days of her life. She got to know every corner of the small glass-windowed office. The windows were a problem, since she was never absolutely sure if Lily or Ivan were outside one of them, standing in the warehouse proper and looking through. She listened carefully for the warehouse doors, froze instantly at any suspicious sound, and trusted to luck. Daphne woke up Monday morning. Rashel had her neck twisted sideways and was staring through the office glass up at the one tiny window set high in the warehouse wall. Just as it turned gray with dawn, Daphne sat up and screamed. â€Å"Sh! It's all right! You're here in the warehouse with me.† â€Å"Rashel?† â€Å"Yeah. We made it. And I'm glad you're awake.† â€Å"Are we alone?† â€Å"More or less,† Rashel said. â€Å"There are two other girls, but they're both hypnotized. You'll see when it gets lighter.† Daphne let out her breath. â€Å"Wow†¦ we did it. That's great. So how come I'm so completely and utterly terrified?† â€Å"Because you're a smart girl,† Rashel said grimly. â€Å"Just wait until Tuesday when they take us out.† â€Å"Take us out where?† â€Å"That's the question.†